PL EN
REVIEW PAPER
 
KEYWORDS
TOPICS
ABSTRACT
Introduction and objective:
The number of users of energy drinks and caffeine shots worldwide is very high and varies depending on the age group. In many countries, legislative measures have been taken to restrict access to these products for minors. The main ingredient in energy boosters is caffeine which is responsible for the stimulating properties of these products. Other substances, such as guarana, taurine, vitamins, and simple sugars, are also included in their composition. The aim of the study is to investigate the impact of these products on the body, and their medical and forensic aspects.

Review methods:
A literature review was conducted using PubMed, Medline, Google Scholar, and information from legal documents and product labels available on the market.

Brief description of the state of knowledge:
The use of high-caffeine products is associated with a negative impact on various systems in the human body, with cardiovascular issues being the most commonly observed. Based on available literature, it can be speculated that children are most vulnerable to the harmful effects of these substances. Another concern related to energy drinks and caffeine shots is their interaction with many medications and other substances. There have been cases reported of overdosing on energy drinks, suicide attempts, and deaths, as a result. In medico-legal diagnostics, toxicological examinations regarding caffeine levels in the blood and appropriate differential diagnostics are crucial.

Summary:
The consumption of energy drinks and caffeine shots may pose a threat to health. Further analyses of the broad impact of these products on the human body, with special consideration for children, are needed.

 
REFERENCES (103)
1.
Vercammen KA, Koma JW, Bleich SN. Trends in Energy Drink Consumption Among U.S. Adolescents and Adults, 2003–2016. Am J Prev Med. 2019;56:827–833. https://doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2....
 
2.
Alsunni AA. Energy Drink Consumption: Beneficial and Adverse Health Effects. Int J Health Sci. 2015;9:468–474.
 
3.
Hammond D, Reid JL. Exposure and perceptions of marketing for caffeinated energy drinks among young Canadians. Public Health Nutr. 2018;21:535–542. https://doi:10.1017/S136898001....
 
4.
Aljaadi AM, Turki A, Gazzaz AZ, et al. Soft and energy drinks consumption and associated factors in Saudi adults: a national cross-sectional study. Front Nutr. 2023;10:1286633. https://doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.....
 
5.
Zucconi S, Volpato C, Adinolfi F, et al. Gathering consumption data on specific consumer groups of energy drinks. EFSA Support Publ. 2013;10. https://doi:10.2903/sp.efsa.20....
 
6.
European Statistical Office. Frequency of drinking sugar-sweetened soft drinks by sex, age and educational attainment level. 2022. https://doi:https://doi.org/10....
 
7.
Piekara A, Krzywonos M. Assessment of the Frequency of Sweetened Beverages Consumption among Adults in Poland. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18:7029. https://doi:10.3390/ijerph1813....
 
8.
Aonso-Diego G, Krotter A, García-Pérez Á. Prevalence of energy drink consumption world-wide: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Addict Abingdon Engl. 2024;119:438–463. https://doi:10.1111/add.16390.
 
9.
Jagim AR, Harty PS, Tinsley GM, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: energy drinks and energy shots. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2023;20:2171314. https://doi:10.1080/15502783.2....
 
10.
Costantino A, Maiese A, Lazzari J, et al. The Dark Side of Energy Drinks: A Comprehensive Review of Their Impact on the Human Body. Nutrients. 2023;15: 3922. https://doi:10.3390/nu15183922.
 
11.
RESOLUCION 4150 DE 2009 (octubre 30). Diario Oficial No. 47.522 de 3 de noviembre de 20.
 
12.
REGULATION (EU) No 1169/2011 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 25 October 2011 on the provision of food information to consumers, amending Regulations (EC) No 1924/2006 and (EC) No 1925/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council, and repealing Commission Directive 87/250/EEC, Council Directive 90/496/EEC, Commission Directive 1999/10/EC, Directive 2000/13/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, Commission Directives 2002/67/EC and 2008/5/EC and Commission Regulation (EC) No 608/2004. Nov 22, 2011. Available: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexU....
 
13.
REPUBLIC OF LITHUANIA LAW ON FOOD 4 April 2000 No VIII-1608 Vilnius (As last amended on 18 December 2014 No XII-1491).
 
14.
USTAWA z dnia 17 sierpnia 2023 r. o zmianie ustawy o zdrowiu publicznym oraz niektórych innych ustaw. DzU 2023.1718.
 
15.
Закон Республики Узбекистан Принят Законодательной палатой 30 ноября 2018 года Одобрен Сенатом 13 декабря 2018 года. Available: https://xs.uz/ru/post/o-vnesen....
 
16.
Iacobucci G. Sales of energy drinks to children to be banned in England under government plan. BMJ. 2018; k3741. https://doi:10.1136/bmj.k3741.
 
17.
Viner R. Ban on sale of energy drinks to children. BMJ. 2018; k3856. https://doi:10.1136/bmj.k3856.
 
18.
Basrai M, Schweinlin A, Menzel J, et al. Energy Drinks Induce Acute Cardiovascular and Metabolic Changes Pointing to Potential Risks for Young Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial. J Nutr. 2019;149: 441–450. https://doi:10.1093/jn/nxy303.
 
19.
Shah SA, Szeto AH, Farewell R, et al. Impact of High Volume Energy Drink Consumption on Electrocardiographic and Blood Pressure Parameters: A Randomized Trial. J Am Heart Assoc. 2019;8: e011318. https://doi:10.1161/JAHA.118.0....
 
20.
Hajsadeghi S, Mohammadpour F, Manteghi MJ, et al. Effects of energy drinks on blood pressure, heart rate, and electrocardiographic parameters: An experimental study on healthy young adults. Anatol J Cardiol. 2015 [cited 30 Nov 2023]. https://doi:10.5152/akd.2015.5....
 
21.
García A, Romero C, Arroyave C, et al. Acute effects of energy drinks in medical students. Eur J Nutr. 2017;56: 2081–2091. https://doi:10.1007/s00394-016....
 
22.
Sun Q, Wang B, Li Y, et al. Taurine Supplementation Lowers Blood Pressure and Improves Vascular Function in Prehypertension: Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study. Hypertension. 2016;67: 541–549. https://doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSI....
 
23.
McLellan TM, Caldwell JA, Lieberman HR. A review of caffeine’s effects on cognitive, physical and occupational performance. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2016;71:294–312. https://doi:10.1016/j.neubiore....
 
24.
Torres EAFS, Pinaffi-Langley ACDC, Figueira MDS, et al. Effects of the consumption of guarana on human health: A narrative review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2022;21:272–295. https://doi:10.1111/1541-4337.....
 
25.
Nadeem IM, Shanmugaraj A, Sakha S, et al. Energy Drinks and Their Adverse Health Effects: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Sports Health Multidiscip Approach. 2021;13:265–277. https://doi:10.1177/1941738120....
 
26.
Chen C, Xia S, He J, et al. Roles of taurine in cognitive function of physiology, pathologies and toxication. Life Sci. 2019;231:116584. https://doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2019....
 
27.
Baliou S, Adamaki M, Ioannou P, et al. Protective role of taurine against oxidative stress (Review). Mol Med Rep. 2021;24: 605. https://doi:10.3892/mmr.2021.1....
 
28.
Calderón-Ospina CA, Nava-Mesa MO. B Vitamins in the nervous system: Current knowledge of the biochemical modes of action and synergies of thiamine, pyridoxine, and cobalamin. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2020;26:5–13. https://doi:10.1111/cns.13207.
 
29.
Ford T, Downey L, Simpson T, et al. The Effect of a High-Dose Vitamin B Multivitamin Supplement on the Relationship between Brain Metabolism and Blood Biomarkers of Oxidative Stress: A Randomized Control Trial. Nutrients. 2018;10: 1860. https://doi:10.3390/nu10121860.
 
30.
Graneri LT, Mamo JCL, D’Alonzo Z, et al. Chronic Intake of Energy Drinks and Their Sugar Free Substitution Similarly Promotes Metabolic Syndrome. Nutrients. 2021;13: 1202. https://doi:10.3390/nu13041202.
 
31.
Tsuda S, Egawa T, Kitani K, et al. Caffeine and contraction synergistically stimulate 5-AMP-activated protein kinase and insulin-independent glucose transport in rat skeletal muscle. Physiol Rep. 2015;3: e12592. https://doi:10.14814/phy2.1259....
 
32.
Shi X, Xue W, Liang S, et al. Acute caffeine ingestion reduces insulin sensitivity in healthy subjects: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr J. 2016;15: 103. https://doi:10.1186/s12937-016....
 
33.
Wen C, Li F, Zhang L, et al. Taurine is Involved in Energy Metabolism in Muscles, Adipose Tissue, and the Liver. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2019;63:1800536. https://doi:10.1002/mnfr.20180....
 
34.
De La Puerta C. Taurine and glucose metabolism: a review. Nutr Hosp. 2010;1–2. https://doi:10.3305/nh.2010.25....
 
35.
LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Available: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/books/NBK559836/.
 
36.
Shearer J. Methodological and metabolic considerations in the study of caffeine-containing energy drinks. Nutr Rev. 2014;72: 137–145. https://doi:10.1111/nure.12131.
 
37.
Uwaifo GI. Beware Energy Drinks: A Case of a Toxic Triad Syndrome in a Diabetic Patient With Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Am J Med Sci. 2019;358:304–311. https://doi:10.1016/j.amjms.20....
 
38.
AdibSaber F, Ansari S, Elmieh A, Rajabzadeh H. Effect of an Energy Drink On Muscle and Liver Damage Enzymes, And Cardiovascular Indices in Soccer Players. Sci Med Footb. 2023;7:8–14. https://doi:10. 1080/24733938.2022.2051728.
 
39.
Mansour B, Amarah W, Nasralla E, Elias N. Energy drinks in children and adolescents: demographic data and immediate effects. Eur J Pediatr. 2019;178: 649–656. https://doi:10.1007/s00431-019....
 
40.
Branum AM, Rossen LM, Schoendorf KC. Trends in Caffeine Intake Among US Children and Adolescents. Pediatrics. 2014;133:386–393. https://doi:10.1542/peds.2013-....
 
41.
Health Canada is advising Canadians about safe levels of caffeine consumption. 25 May 2017. Available: https://healthycanadians.gc.ca....
 
42.
Oberhoffer FS, Dalla-Pozza R, Jakob A, et al. Energy drinks: effects on pediatric 24-h ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. A randomized trial. Pediatr Res. 2023;94:1172–1179. https://doi:10.1038/s41390-023- 02598-y.
 
43.
Oberhoffer FS, Li P, Jakob A, et al. Energy Drinks: Effects on Blood Pressure and Heart Rate in Children and Teenagers. A Randomized Trial. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2022;9: 862041. https://doi:10.3389/ fcvm.2022.862041.
 
44.
Li P, Mandilaras G, Jakob A, et al. Energy Drinks and Their Acute Effects on Arterial Stiffness in Healthy Children and Teenagers: A Randomized Trial. J Clin Med. 2022;11: 2087. https://doi:10.3390/ jcm11082087.
 
45.
Yu L, Mei H, Shi D, et al. Association of caffeine and caffeine metabolites with obesity among children and adolescents: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2009–2014. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2022;29:57618–57628. https://doi:10.1007/s11356-022....
 
46.
Paglia L. The sweet danger of added sugars. Eur J Paediatr Dent. 2019;89–89. https://doi:10.23804/ejpd.2019....
 
47.
Wee JH, Min C, Park MW, et al. Energy-drink consumption is associated with asthma, allergic rhinitis, and atopic dermatitis in Korean adolescents. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2021;75:1077–1087. https://doi:10.1038/s41430-020....
 
48.
Bashir D, Reed-Schrader E, Olympia RP, et al. Clinical Symptoms and Adverse Effects Associated With Energy Drink Consumption in Adolescents. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2016;32:751–755. https://doi:10.1097/ PEC.0000000000000703.
 
49.
Van Batenburg-Eddes T, Lee NC, Weeda WD, et al. The potential adverse effect of energy drinks on executive functions in early adolescence. Front Psychol. 2014;5. https://doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014....
 
50.
Sefen JAN, Patil JD, Cooper H. The implications of alcohol mixed with energy drinks from medical and socio-legal standpoints. Front Behav Neurosci. 2022;16:968889. https://doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2022....
 
51.
Arria AM, Caldeira KM, Bugbee BA, et al. Energy Drink Use Patterns Among Young Adults: Associations with Drunk Driving. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2016;40:2456–2466. https://doi:10.1111/acer.13229.
 
52.
Wilson MN, Cumming T, Burkhalter R, et al. Driving under the influence behaviours among high school students who mix alcohol with energy drinks. Prev Med. 2018;111: 402–409. https://doi:10.1016/j. ypmed.2017.11.035.
 
53.
Hladun O, Papaseit E, Martín S, et al. Interaction of Energy Drinks with Prescription Medication and Drugs of Abuse. Pharmaceutics. 2021;13: 1532. https://doi:10.3390/pharmaceut....
 
54.
Pérez-Mañá C, Mateus JA, Díaz-Pellicer P, et al. Effects of Mixing Energy Drinks With Alcohol on Driving-Related Skills. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2022;25:13–25. https://doi:10.1093/ijnp/ pyab051.
 
55.
Roemer A, Stockwell T. Alcohol Mixed With Energy Drinks and Risk of Injury: A Systematic Review. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2017;78:175–183. https://doi:10.15288/jsad.2017....
 
56.
Surma S, Zembala MO, Filipiak KJ. Od alkoholu do migotania przedsionków — dużo hałasu o…? Chor Serca Naczyń. 2022;19:131– 143. https://doi:10.5603/ChSiN.2022....
 
57.
Osman H, Tabatabai S, Korashy M, Hussein M. Caffeinated Energy Drink Induced Ventricular Fibrillation: The Price for Overexcitement. Cureus. 2019 [cited 9 Feb 2024]. https://doi:10.7759/cureus.635....
 
58.
Munteanu C. Long-term consumption of energy drinks induces biochemical and ultrastructural alterations in the heart muscle Anatol J Cardiol. 2018 [cited 9 Feb 2024]. https://doi:10.14744/ AnatolJCardiol.2018.90094.
 
59.
Demirel A. Histopathological Changes in the Myocardium Caused by Energy Drinks and Alcohol in the Mid-term and Their Effects on Skeletal Muscle Following Ischemia-reperfusion in a Rat Model. Anatol J Cardiol. 2023;27:12–18. https://doi:10.14744/AnatolJCa....
 
60.
Chami M, Di Primio S. Energy drink consumption can induce cardiovascular events, two case reports and a literature review. Toxicol Anal Clin. 2023; S2352007823003153. https://doi:10.1016/j. toxac.2023.09.005.
 
61.
Wassef B, Kohansieh M, Makaryus AN. Effects of energy drinks on the cardiovascular system. World J Cardiol. 2017;9:796–806. https://doi:10.4330/wjc.v9.i11....
 
62.
Zacher J, May E, Horlitz M, Pingel S. Binge drinking alcohol with caffeinated “energy drinks”, prolonged emesis and spontaneous coronary artery dissection: a case report, review of the literature and postulation of a pathomechanism. Clin Res Cardiol. 2018;107:975–979. https://doi:10.1007/s00392-018....
 
63.
Britz H, Hanke N, Volz A, et al. Physiologically-Based Pharmacokinetic Models for CYP 1A2 Drug–Drug Interaction Prediction: A Modeling Network of Fluvoxamine, Theophylline, Caffeine, Rifampicin, and Midazolam. CPT Pharmacomet Syst Pharmacol. 2019;8:296–307. https://doi:10.1002/psp4.12397.
 
64.
Belayneh A, Molla F. The Effect of Coffee on Pharmacokinetic Properties of Drugs: A Review. BioMed Res Int. 2020;2020: 7909703. https://doi:10.1155/2020/79097....
 
65.
Addepalli V, Kale P. Enhancement of nootropic effect of duloxetine and bupropion by caffeine in mice. Indian J Pharmacol. 2015;47:199. https://doi:10.4103/0253-7613.....
 
66.
Rodrigues M, Alves G, Lourenço N, Falcão A. Herb-Drug Interaction of Paullinia cupana (Guarana) Seed Extract on the Pharmacokinetics of Amiodarone in Rats. Evid-Based Complement Altern Med ECAM. 2012;2012:428560. https://doi:10.1155/2012/42856....
 
67.
Zieleń-Zynek I, Kowalska J, Będkowska-Szczepańska A, et al. Interakcje wybranych leków kardiologicznych ze składnikami diety. Folia Cardiol. 2019;14:46–51. https://doi:10.5603/FC.2019.00....
 
68.
Lim J, Chee S, Wong W, et al. Traditional Chinese medicine: herb-drug interactions with aspirin. Singapore Med J. 2018;59:230 239. https://doi:10.11622/smedj.201....
 
69.
Choi M-K, Song I-S. Interactions of ginseng with therapeutic drugs. Arch Pharm Res. 2019;42: 862–878. https://doi:10.1007/s12272-019....
 
70.
Ramanathan MR, Penzak SR. Pharmacokinetic Drug Interactions with Panax ginseng. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet. 2017;42:545–557. https://doi:10.1007/s13318-016....
 
71.
Muftin NQ, Eltayef EM, Murtadha MK, et al. The effect of ginseng plant on the activity of monoamino oxidase and peroxidase. Ann Trop Med Public Health. 2020;23:508–515. https://doi:10.36295/ ASRO.2020.23733.
 
72.
Sun Q, Wang B, Li Y, et al. Taurine Supplementation Lowers Blood Pressure and Improves Vascular Function in Prehypertension: Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study. Hypertens Dallas Tex 1979. 2016;67:541–549. https://doi:10.1161/ HYPERTENSIONAHA.115.06624.
 
73.
Grasser EK, Miles-Chan JL, Charrière N, et al. Energy Drinks and Their Impact on the Cardiovascular System: Potential Mechanisms. Adv Nutr Bethesda Md. 2016;7:950–960. https://doi:10.3945/an.116.012....
 
74.
Musgrave IF, Farrington RL, Hoban C, Byard RW. Caffeine toxicity in forensic practice: possible effects and under-appreciated sources Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2016;12: 299–303. https://doi:10.1007/s12024-016....
 
75.
Laitselart P, Saguin E, Plantamura J, et al. Severe Sympathomimetic Toxidrome in a French Soldier: How Caffeine Overdose Can Lead to Severe Consequences. Mil Med. 2018;183:e179–e181. https://doi:10.1093/milmed/usx....
 
76.
Zeriouh IF, Brahim Amina Cherifa, Addou Samia. Effect of consumption of energy drinks and their toxicities. South Asian J Exp Biol. 2023;13:133–139. https://doi:10.38150/sajeb.13(....
 
77.
Lippi G, Cervellin G, Sanchis-Gomar F. Energy Drinks and Myocardial Ischemia: A Review of Case Reports. Cardiovasc Toxicol. 2016;16: 207–212. https://doi:10.1007/s12012-015....
 
78.
Borron SW, Watts SH, Herrera J, et al. Energy drink exposures reported to Texas poison centers: Analysis of adverse incidents in relation to total sales, 2010–2014. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2018;97: 1–14. https://doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.20....
 
79.
Wilson RE, Kado HS, Samson R, Miller AB. A Case of Caffeine-Induced Coronary Artery Vasospasm of a 17-Year-Old Male. Cardiovasc Toxicol. 2012;12:175–179. https://doi:10.1007/s12012-011....
 
80.
Berger AJ, Alford K. Cardiac arrest in a young man following excess consumption of caffeinated “energy drinks.” Med J Aust. 2009;190: 41–43. https://doi:10.5694/j.1326-537....
 
81.
Bonsignore A, Sblano S, Pozzi F, et al. A case of suicide by ingestion of caffeine. Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2014;10:448–451. https://doi:10.1007/s12024-014....
 
82.
Wajih Ullah M, Lakhani S, Siddiq W, et al. Energy Drinks and Myocardial Infarction. Cureus. 2018 [cited 7 Feb 2024]. https://doi:10.7759/cureus.265....
 
83.
Szeremeta M, Sackiewicz A, Drobuliak P, et al. Rare Complications of Fatal Caffeine Intoxication. Forensic Sci. 2022;2:144–154. https://doi:10.3390/forensicsc....
 
84.
Willson C. The clinical toxicology of caffeine: A review and case study. Toxicol Rep. 2018;5:1140–1152. https://doi:10.1016/j.toxrep.2....
 
85.
Cao DX, Maiton K, Nasir JM, et al. Energy Drink-Associated Electrophysiological and Ischemic Abnormalities: A Narrative Review. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2021;8:679105. https://doi:10.3389/fcvm.2021.....
 
86.
Andrade A, Sousa C, Pedro M, Fernandes M. Dangerous mistake: an accidental caffeine overdose. BMJ Case Rep. 2018; bcr-2018-224185. https://doi:10.1136/bcr-2018-2....
 
87.
Horikawa Y, Yatsuga S, Okamatsu Y. Caffeine Intoxication Due to Antipyretic Analgesic Overdose in an Adolescent. Cureus. 2021 [cited 7 Feb 2024]. https://doi:10.7759/cureus.179....
 
88.
Jones AW. Review of Caffeine-Related Fatalities along with Postmortem Blood Concentrations in 51 Poisoning Deaths. J Anal Toxicol. 2017;41:167–172. https://doi:10.1093/jat/bkx011.
 
89.
Cannon ME, Cooke CT, McCarthy JS. Caffeine-induced cardiac arrhythmia: an unrecognised danger of healthfood products. Med J Aust. 2001;174:520–521. https://doi:10.5694/j.1326-537....
 
90.
Sanchis-Gomar F, Pareja-Galeano H, Cervellin G, et al. Energy Drink Overconsumption in Adolescents: Implications for Arrhythmias and Other Cardiovascular Events. Can J Cardiol. 2015;31:572–575. https://doi:10.1016/j.cjca.201....
 
91.
Kasıkcıoglu E. Sports, energy drinks, and sudden cardiac death: stimulant cardiac syndrome. Anatol J Cardiol. 2017 [cited 7 Feb 2024]. https://doi:10.14744/AnatolJCa....
 
92.
Coll M, Fernàndez-Falgueras A, Tiron C, et al. Post-mortem toxicology analysis in a young sudden cardiac death cohort. Forensic Sci Int Genet. 2022;59:102723. https://doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2....
 
93.
Schulz M, Iwersen-Bergmann S, Andresen H, Schmoldt A. Therapeutic and toxic blood concentrations of nearly 1,000 drugs and other xenobiotics. Crit Care. 2012;16:R136. https://doi:10.1186/cc11441.
 
94.
Meester S, Hogrefe C. Consider Going Decaf: An Intentional Caffeine Overdose in the Emergency Department. J Emerg Med. 2020;59:e163–e165. https://doi:10.1016/j.jemermed....
 
95.
Velička M, Zacharovas E, Adomavičiūtė S, Šablinskas V. Detection of caffeine intake by means of EC-SERS spectroscopy of human saliva. Spectrochim Acta A Mol Biomol Spectrosc. 2021;246:118956. https://doi:10.1016/j.saa.2020....
 
96.
Ferrari Júnior E, Dos Santos JBA, Caldas ED. Drugs, pesticides and metabolites in forensic post-mortem blood samples. Med Sci Law. 2021;61:97–104. https://doi:10.1177/0025802420....
 
97.
Sørensen LK, Hasselstrøm JB, Larsen LS, Bindslev DA. Entrapment of drugs in dental calculus – Detection validation based on test results from post-mortem investigations. Forensic Sci Int. 2021;319:110647. https://doi:10.1016/j.forsciin....
 
98.
Tominaga M, Michiue T, Oritani S, et al. Evaluation of Postmortem Drug Concentrations in Bile Compared with Blood and Urine in Forensic Autopsy Cases. J Anal Toxicol. 2016;40:367–373. https://doi:10.1093/jat/bkw028.
 
99.
Israelit SH, Strizevsky A, Raviv B. ST elevation myocardial infarction in a young patient after ingestion of caffeinated energy drink and ecstasy. World J Emerg Med. 2012;3:305. https://doi:10.5847/wjem.j.iss....
 
100.
Jabbar SB, Hanly MG. Fatal Caffeine Overdose: A Case Report and Review of Literature. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2013;34:321–324. https://doi:10.1097/PAF.000000....
 
101.
Kitano T, Okajima M, Sato K, et al. Suicidal attempt with caffeine overdose treated with dexmedetomidine: a case report. J Med Case Reports. 2021;15:11. https://doi:10.1186/s13256-020....
 
102.
Cappelletti S, Piacentino D, Fineschi V, et al. Caffeine-Related Deaths: Manner of Deaths and Categories at Risk. Nutrients. 2018;10:611. https://doi:10.3390/nu10050611.
 
103.
The data collected by the authors of the publication from available information contained on products packaging.
 
eISSN:2084-4905
ISSN:2083-4543
Journals System - logo
Scroll to top